Social Studies Chapter 9

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Chapter 9
1 New Directions in Science Section Review

1. Identify:
Nicolaus Copernicus: Polish mathematician and astronomer who questioned Ptolemy’s teachings.
Tycho Brahe: Danish astronomer who made detailed observations of the planets and stars.
Johannes Kepler: Brahe’s assistant who used Brahe’s observations and was responsible for creating several new theories in astronomy.
Galileo Galilei: A famous Italian astronomer, Galilei used the telescope to observe many of the moons, and in the process refuting most of the teachings of ancient philosophers. He was eventually forced to denounce his own work by his enemies and the Catholic Church.

2. Define:
Scientific Method: A method of scientific study that was developed during the Scientific Revolution.
Law of Gravity: A scientific law developed by Sir Issac Newton that explains the force of attraction.

3. Why was mathematics important to the scientific method?
Mathematics was the only way in which scientific theories could be proved, as opposed to logic.

4. Give two reasons why scholars challenged the ideas of Copernicus.
Much of human knowledge was based on the work of the ancient philosophers, and if it was proven that these philosophers were wrong, then all of these theories would be up in the air. Plus, humans generally don’t like change, or being proven that their accepted theories were wrong, so when Copernicus just comes and says that everything is wrong, these scholar’s first reactions were to be defensive.

5. What did Galileo’s observations through the telescope reveal?
He discovered that the so-called ‘heavenly bodies’ of the planets were imperfect, and changing.

6. How did Newton think the universe worked?
Newton believed that the universe was an enormous machine, which complied with all of the laws of nature.

7. Describe one way each of the following contributed to medical knowledge:
(a) Paracelsus: He proved that it was possible to change one substance to another.
(b) Andreas Vesalius: He also refuted some of Galen’s teachings, and published On the Structure of the Human Body, which was an important work dealing with human anatomy.
(c) Ambroise Paré:
Paré developed an ointment that prevent infections, and stitching to close wounds.
(d) William Harvey:
Harvey proved that blood flowed through the body, instead of remaining stationary.

2 Enlightenment Thinkers Section Review

1. Identify:
Thomas Hobbes: An English philosopher, Hobbes believed in a communist-like society (with a monarch), and believed than an anarchy would be terrible.
John Locke: Another English philosopher, Locke believed that the government should not have such a strong grip on the people, and that people should be given some basic freedoms.
Montesquieu: A French baron, he thought that the three branches of government as found in the English system was a great idea, and also thought that there should be checks and balances for each of these branches.
Voltaire: The best-known philosophe, he advocated for secularism and freedom of speech.
Jean Jacques Rousseau: A Swiss philosophe, Rousseau had an unpleasant upbringing, and his ideas frequently clashed with those of other philosophes. Rousseau championed the ‘general will’, belief in equality and the will of the general people.

2. Define:
Philosophe: French for philosophers, philosophes were philosophers who general agreed that people had basic rights.
Physiocrat: A group of philosophes, physiocrats were those who believed economics was caused by natural laws.
Free market: A market in which all trade can be freely bought and sold with no restrictions.

3. (a) What kind of government did Hobbes support?
An absolute monarchy.
(b) According to Locke, when did people have a right to rebel?
The people had a right to rebel when the ruler became a tyrant.

4. Describe three concerns of the philosophes.
The philosophes believed in basic human rights, freedom of speech, and secularism.

5. Why did Montesquieu support a government system with checks and balances?
That say, no government branch could dominate the other, plus, it also prevents a government stepping beyond its boundaries.

6. (a) Who did Voltaire think should govern?
Voltaire thought that only a ruler who studied government and protected the rights of the people should govern.
(b) What did Rousseau mean by the “general will”?
Rousseau meant the decision of the majority and the general consensus.

3 Impact of the Enlightenment Section Review

1. Identify:
Denis Diderot: A French philosophe, Diderot was responsible for the publication of the Encyclopedia.
Joseph II: An Austrian monarch who implemented many reforms which reflected Enlightenment principles
Johann Sebastian Bach: A German composer, Bach was famous for his religious music.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: One of the greatest composer of all time, Mozart was a child genius who lived in the late 1700s.

2. Define: Salon.
A salon was an informal gathering where writers, musicians, painters, and philosophes exhibited their work and discussed their thoughts on various subjects.

3. What subjects did Diderot’s Encyclopedia emphasize the most?
Science and technology.

4. Describe three reforms introduced by enlightened monarchs.
Religious freedom was one of the more well known reforms, however, banning torture and serfdom were also important.

Recalling Facts

Column 1
Column 2
1. Denis Diderot
2. john Locke
3. William Harvey
4. Sir Issac Newton
5. Nicolaus Copernicus
6. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
7. Jean Jacques Rousseau
8. Galileo Galilei
a. Polish astronomer who said the earth revolved around the sun
b. English mathematician who developed law of gravity
c. English philosopher who believed people had natural rights to life, liberty, and property
d. philosopher who edited the Encyclopedia.
e. astronomer who used a telescope to observe sunspots and the moons of Jupiter
f. physician who studied the circulation of the blood
g. composer who began writing music before age five
h. philosopher who thought society corrupted people
Match each name in column 1 with the correct description in Column 2.


1.d; 2.c; 3.f; 4.b; 5.a; 6.g; 7.h; 8.e

Chapter Checkup
1. (a) What was the basis of scientific thought during the Middle Ages?
The theories of the ancient philosophers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy were the basis of science during that time.
(b) Why did scholars begin to question traditional scientific views after 1200?
Scholars discovered that previously accepted theories were in fact incorrect.
(c) How did Copernicus help develop the scientific method?
Copernicus’s proof that Ptolemy was wrong helped influence the scientific method because of his use of mathematics to support his argument.

2. (a) How did Galileo make so many enemies?
Galileo was outspoken in his belief that the traditional thought about science was flawed, and humiliated his enemies.
(b) How did they get their revenge?
His enemies managed to get the Catholic Church to ban the teachings of Copernicus and Galileo from promoting them. Later on, Galileo was forced before the Inquisition.
(c) Why did Galileo give in to the Inquisition?
Galileo had no other choice, otherwise he would have been killed as a heretic.

3. (a) How did Newton’s work help change people’s view of the universe?
Newton’s law of gravity was an enormous discovery, and helped promote the view that the universe was bound to the laws of nature, rather than an outer power.
(b) What other effects did his work have?
Calculus was commonly used to enhance many things, and his ideas eventually resulted in many practical inventions.

4. (a) How were the ideas of Hobbes and Locke similar?
They both agreed on the responsibilities of the government, and viewed the government as a contract between the people and their ruler.
(b) How were they different?
Hobbes view supported absolute monarchy, with little personal freedom and rights, while Locke thought that there should be more freedoms and human rights, and that the power of the government should be restricted.
5. (a) What social and economic changes did the philosophes want?
The philosophes promoted a liberal take on things, and believed that protection from religious persecution, freedom of speech, education should be given to the people. Physiocrats also believed in a free market.
(b) Did they achieve any of their goals during the 1700s? Explain.
Their goal of having a free market was not accomplished, however, some enlightened monarchs enacted reforms which reflect some of the social changes that the philosophes wanted. Joseph II of Austria enacted reforms that complied with the entire social changes needed, and some other monarchs made some effort at reform.

6. Describe how each of the following helped spread Enlightenment ideas:
(a) The Encyclopedia
Diderot’s work was full of articles written by some of the most prominent leaders in their fields. Although banned in France, it was quite popular throughout Europe.
(b) learned societies
Learned societies distributed reports and hosted lectures on Enlightenment ideas.
(c) salons
These gatherings encouraged the ‘growth’ of enlightenment ideas by providing a way where artists and philosophes could interact and discuss ideas.

For Further Thought

1. Analyzing a Quotation Leonardo da Vinci wrote, “No human investigation can be called true science without passing through mathematical tests.”
(a) How was this view reflected in the Scientific Revolution?
Many theories, starting with Copernicus’s theories, were heavily based on mathematical calculations and proof. Later on, the scientific method was heavily based on maths.
(b) Why do you think scholars such as Newton had such confidence in mathematics?
Newton may have believed that logic didn’t also work anymore, and there needed to be an exacting way to prove scientific theories. Therefore, mathematics was used.

2. Relating Past to Present list three developments of the Scientific Revolution. What have been the long-term consequences of each?
The development of the scientific method has a large long-term effect. Most of today’s science is based on theories resulting from the use of the scientific method. The beliefs of the philosophes are reflected in our society today, as most Western nations ban the use of torture, promote religious freedoms and freedom of speech. Free market has been embraced by many capitalistic nations, although in reality, many barriers to total free trade remains in many nations.

3. Expressing an Opinion The philosophes were confident of human progress. They believed that life could be improved.
(a) What events and developments of the time do you think contributed to this attitude?
The Renaissance was still alive, and there had been many great improvements in many areas of human life and culture. The Reformation was a giant step forward, and proved that the Church could be reformed for better.
(b) Do you think people today still believe in progress? Explain.
Many people still believe in progress, otherwise interest in things such as space technology, nanotechnology, and other technology and scientific innovations would decrease dramatically. Civil rights have greatly improved over the last decades in Western and some non-Western nations. However, there are always conservatives who do not hope for change, and wish that everything was what they had known it to be.

4. Applying Information Joseph II was an enlightened monarch and an absolute ruler. Yet he could not greatly improve the lives of his people. Why do you think this was true? First of all, we have to be clear about how we are defining the ‘lives’. Is it by social equality, general livelihood and spirituality, or economic prosperity?
Joseph II didn’t implement many economic reforms, such as free trade, or other things. Economic prosperity therefore didn’t increase. Although social freedoms were greatly increased, there are many other factors that affect the lives, and not enough may have been done to help that.

Developing Basic Skills

1. Classifying Make a chart with three columns. In the first column, list Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau. In the second column, describe the government each philosopher thought was best. In the third column, explain why each thought his system was the best. Then answer the following questions:
Hobbes
Absolute Monarchy- a ruler with absolute power, and the people must obey and not rebel
Order and protection is very important, and can only be attained at the cost of freedom
Locke
Government in which the people had fundamental rights, and if ruler was tyrant, rebellion could happen.
Government is responsible for protecting rights, but power must be limited
Montesquieu
Government with three branches: executive (enforced laws), judiciary (solved disputes), and legislature (made laws).
Checks and balance keep a balance of power, prevent one branch from dominating another
Voltaire
Ruler must have studied governments and protects rights
Civil liberties are extremely important, especially religious toleration and freedom of thought
Rousseau
All people are equal, nobility and rank are abolished, form a community, no ruler, some freedom given to follow decision of majority
Society corrupts people, and people should be equal

(a) Which philosopher’s ideas where most democratic? Why?
Rousseau’s ideas are by far the most democratic. The will of the majority is followed at all times, and there is no decisions made by a small group of people (legislature, ruler).
(b) Which philosopher’s ideas where least democratic? Why?
Hobbes ideas are completely devoid of democracy. The will of the people is not respected, and the ruler has absolute rule over everything.
(c) Who was concerned with individual rights?
Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire were concerned about individual rights.
(d) Which system do you think is most like the government of Canada today? Explain.
Although Canada’s democratic system is similar to those of Locke and Voltaire, it most closely resembles that of Montesquieu’s. Canada’s government system is closely based on Britain’s governing system, which is what Montesquieu’s system is based on. We have the legislature (House of Commons), judiciary (Supreme Court of Canada and other courts), and the executive (Queen of Canada, Governor General and the Prime Minsiter). We do value the religious tolerance and freedom of thought as promoted by Voltaire, with separation of church and state, but some of Harper’s policies aren’t really secular, and promote somewhat of a religious agenda. As far as I know, Locke’s preferred government was not democratic, and that is quite different from our system.

2. Researching Choose one individual who made a contribution to the Scientific Revolutioin or the Enlightenment. Research his or her background in order to answer the following questions:
Voltaire:
(a) To what social class did the person belong?
Voltaire came from a noble family, albeit minor.
(b) What training or education did the person receive?
He received education at the Collège Louis-le-Grande, and also studied law, and eventually could speak English, Italian, and Spanish fluently in addition to French.
(c) What was the individual’s contribution to the Scientific Revolution or the Enlightenment?
Possibly the most famous philosophe, his views on civil liberties, separation of church and state, and other freedoms were quite important. His witty and satirical works also made him prominent.
(e) Why was the person’s contribution important?
His defence of civil rights was important, as it influenced many others later on. Nevertheless, some of his beliefs are not popular today in Western culture, such as his lack of faith in democracy, support of military in bringing order (although we do it), discrimination against all organized religion, racism, and in Canada, the expression ‘a few acres of snow’.